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A monk (Greek: μοναχός, monachos), derived from Greek monos, alone), in modern
parlance also referred to as a "monastic", is a person who practices religious
asceticism, the conditioning of mind and body in favor of the spirit, and does
so living either alone or with any number of like-minded people, whilst always
maintaining some degree of physical separation from those not sharing the same
purpose. The concept is ancient and can be seen in many religions and in
philosophy.
In the Greek language the term can apply to men or women; but in modern English
it is in use only for men, while nun is used for female monastics.
Although the term monachos-“monk” is of Christian origin, in the English
language it tends to be used analogously or loosely also for ascetics from other
religious or philosophical backgrounds.
The term "monk" is generic. In some religious or philosophical traditions it
therefore may be considered interchangeable with other generic terms such as
ascetic. However, being generic, it is not interchangeable with terms that
denote particular kinds of monk, such as cenobite, hermit, anchorite, hesychast,
solitary.
Etymology
Monk
A monk (Greek: μοναχός, monachos, Latin: monachus) is a general term for a
person who leads the "monastic life" in a "monastery".
Nowadays it tends to be wrongly assumed that it signifies a monk living in
community, who is, however, merely a kind of monk, namely a cenobite.
From early Church times there has been a lively discussion of the meaning of the
term monk (derived from Greek: monos, alone), namely whether it denotes someone
living alone/away from the rest of society, or someone celibate/focused on God
alone. The Western rule giver Benedict of Nursia understood it as meaning the
latter, namely a celibate dedicated to God. This is evident from the fact that
his list of the four kinds of monks includes hermits.
The four kinds of monks identified by Benedict of Nursia in chapter 1 of his
Rule for Monks as well as in the Rule of the Master are the following:
1. The cenobites live in community in a monastery, serve God under a religious
rule and do so under the leadership of an abbot (or in the case of a community
of women, an abbess). Benedict points out in ch. 1.13 that they are the "strong
kind", which by logic of the context must mean the larger number rather than the
better kind.
2. The hermits and anchorites have thorough experience as cenobites in a
monastery. "They have built up their strength and go from the battle line in the
ranks of their brothers to the single combat of the desert; self-reliant now,
without the support of another, they are ready with God's help to grapple
single-handed with the vices of body and mind". Benedict himself twice lived for
prolonged periods as a hermit, which may account for the comparative length of
the characteristics of their life in this list.
3. The sarabaites, censured by Benedict as the most detestable kind of monks,
are pretenders that have no cenobitic experience, follow no rule and have no
superior.
4. The gyrovagues, censured by Benedict as worse than sarabaites, are wandering
monks without stability in a particular monastery.
In the English language, but not in German and French, a distinction is made
between monks and friars, the latter being members of mendicant orders.
Monastery
Monastery
A monastery is the dwelling of one or more monks.
The term monastery is already used by the Jewish philosopher Philo (c. 20 BCE -
50 CE, resident in Alexandria, Egypt) in his description of the life of the
Therapeutae and Therapeutides, people with common religious aspirations who then
were dwelling on a low-lying hill above the Mareotic Lake near Alexandria in
houses at a distance of each other that safeguarded both solitude and security
(cf. On the Contemplative Life ch. III, in the Loeb Classical Library edition
see §25).
In each house there is a consecrated room which is called a sanctuary or closet
(monastērion), and closeted (monoumenoi) in this they are initiated into the
mysteries of the sanctified life. They take nothing into it, either drink or
food or any other of the things necessary for the needs of the body, but laws
and oracles delivered through the mouth of prophets, and hymns and anything else
which fosters and perfects knowledge and piety. They keep the memory of God
alive and never forget it … Twice every day they pray, at dawn and at eventide …
The interval between early morning and evening is spent entirely in spiritual
exercise. They read the holy scriptures and seek wisdom from their ancestral
philosophy … For six days they seek wisdom by themselves in solitude in the
closets (monastēriois) mentioned above … But every seventh day they meet
together as for a general assembly … (in a) common sanctuary … (Philo, On The
Contemplative Life, ch. III).
Christian monks
Christian monasticism
History of Christian monasticism
Monasticism drew its origin from the examples of the Prophet Elias and John the
Baptist who both lived alone in the desert, the desert having been regarded
throughout Old Testament times as a place of spiritual renewal and return to
God, whether for the benefit of the individual and as a representative of the
community. At the beginning of his public ministry Jesus of Nazareth subjected
himself for forty days to physical and spiritual testing in the desert; and the
Gospels record other times in which he retired for periods of solitary prayer.
In the early church, individuals would live ascetic lives, though usually on the
outskirts of civilization. Communities of virgins are also mentioned by early
church authors, but again these communities were either located in towns, or
near the edges of them.
The first famous Christian known to adopt the life in a desert was St. Anthony
the Great (251 - 356), sometime in the latter part of the 3rd century. He lived
alone as an anchorite in the Egyptian desert until he attracted a circle of
followers, after which he retired further into the desert to escape the
adulation of men. In the beginning, St. Anthony had an experienced ascetic who
gave him advice, but he also lived near the town. St. Anthony was the first to
go out into the desert for the sole purpose of pursuing God in solitude. As the
idea of devoting one's entire life to God grew, more and more monks joined him,
even in the far desert. Under St. Anthony's system, they each lived in
isolation. Later, loose-knit communities began to be formed, coming together
only on Sundays and major feast days for Holy Communion. These are referred to
as sketes, named after the location in Egypt where this system began. The
concept of monks all living together under one roof and under the rule of a
single abbot is attributed to St. Pachomios (ca. 292 - 348), who lived in the
beginning of the 4th century, and is referred to as coenobitic monasticism. At
this same time, St. Pachomios' sister became the first abbess of a monastery of
women (convent). Christian monasticism spread throughout the Eastern Roman
Empire. At its height it was not uncommon for coenobitic monasteries to house
upwards of 30,000 monks.
As Christianity grew and diversified, so did the style of monasticism. In the
East, monastic norms came to be regularized through the writings of St. Basil
the Great (c. 330 - 379) and St. Theodore the Studite (c. 758 - c. 826),
coalescing more or less into the form in which it is still found today. In the
West, there was initially some distrust of monasticism, due to fears of
extremism previously observed in certain heretical groups, most notably
Gnosticism. Largely through the writings of St. John Cassian (c. 360 – 433)
monasticism came to be accepted in the West as well. St. Benedict of Nursia (c.
480 – 547) set forth the very first monastic rule in the west. In the beginning,
Western monasticism followed much the same pattern as its Eastern forebears, but
over time the traditions diversified.
Monasticism in Eastern Christianity
In the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches,
monasticism holds a very special and important place. Far more common than in
the Roman Catholic Church, the spiritual health of the Orthodox Church can be
measured by the quality of its monks and nuns. Orthodox monastics separate
themselves from the world in order to pray unceasingly for the world. They do
not, in general, have as their primary purpose the running of social services,
as is common in Western Christianity, but instead are concerned with attaining
theosis, or union with God. However, care for the poor and needy has always been
an obligation of monasticism, so Orthodox monasteries are not normally
"cloistered" like some contemplative Western houses are, though the level of
contact will vary from community to community. Orthodox hermits, on the other
hand, have little or no contact with the outside world.
Orthodox monasticism does not have religious orders as are found in the West,
nor do they have Rules in the same sense as the Rule of St. Benedict. Rather,
Eastern monastics study and draw inspiration from the writings of the Desert
Fathers as well as other Church Fathers; probably the most influential of which
are the Greater Asketikon and Lesser Asketikon of St. Basil the Great and the
Philokalia, which was compiled by St. Nikodemos of the Holy Mountain and St.
Makarios of Corinth. Hesychasm is of primary importance in the ascetical
theology of the Orthodox Church.
Most communities are self-supporting, and the monastic’s daily life is usually
divided into three parts: (a) communal worship in the catholicon (the
monastery's main church); (b) hard manual labour; and (c) private prayer,
spiritual study, and rest when necessary. Meals are usually taken in common in a
sizable dining hall known as a trapeza (refectory), at elongated refectory
tables. Food is usually simple and is eaten in silence while one of the brethren
reads aloud from the spiritual writings of the Holy Fathers. The monastic
lifestyle takes a great deal of serious commitment and hard work, it forces the
person to overcome their own flaws and weaknesses; those newcomers with romantic
notions about this sort of lifestyle usually do not last more than a few days.
Within the coenobitic community, all monks conform to a common way of living
based on the traditions of that particular monastery. In struggling to attain
this conformity, the monastic comes to realize his own shortcomings and is
guided by his spiritual father in how to deal honestly with them. Attaining this
level of self-discipline is perhaps the most difficult and painful
accomplishment any human being can make; but the end goal, to become like an
angel on earth (an "earthly angel and a heavenly man", as the church hymns put
it), is the reason monastics are held in such high esteem. For this same reason,
Bishops are almost always chosen from the ranks of monks.
Eastern monasticism is found in three distinct forms: anchoritic (a solitary
living in isolation), coenobitic (a community living and worshiping together
under the direct rule of an abbot or abbess), and the "middle way" between the
two, known as the skete (a community of individuals living separately but in
close proximity to one another, who come together only on Sundays and feast
days, working and praying the rest of the time in solitude, but under the
direction of an elder). One normally enters a coenobitic community first, and
only after testing and spiritual growth would one go on to the skete or, for the
most advanced, become a solitary anchorite. However, one is not necessarily
expected to join a skete or become a solitary; most monastics remain in the
cenobuim the whole of their lives. The form of monastic life an individual
embraces is considered to be his vocation; that is to say, it is dependent upon
the will of God, and is revealed by grace.
In general, Orthodox monastics have little or no contact with the outside world,
including their own families. The purpose of the monastic life is union with
God, the means is through leaving the world (i.e., the life of the passions).
After tonsure, Orthodox monks and nuns are never permitted to cut their hair.
The hair of the head and the beard remain uncut as a symbol of the vows they
have taken, reminiscent of the Nazarites from the Old Testament. The Tonsure of
monks is the token of a consecrated life, and symbolizes the cutting off of
their self-will.
Degrees of Christian Orthodox monasticism
Degrees of Orthodox monasticism
The Great Schema worn by Orthodox monks and nuns of the highest degreeThe
process of becoming a monk is intentionally slow, as the vows taken are
considered to entail a life-long commitment to God, and are not to be entered
into lightly. In Orthodox monasticism after completing the novitiate, there are
three ranks of monasticism. There is only one monastic habit in the Eastern
Church (with certain slight regional variations), and it is the same for both
monks and nuns. Each successive grade is given a portion of the habit, the full
habit being worn only by those in the highest grade, known for that reason as
the "Great Schema", or "Great Habit." One is free to enter any monastery of
one's choice; but after being accepted by the abbot (or abbess) and making vows,
one may not move from place to place without the blessing of one's
ecclesiastical superior.
The various profession rites are normally performed by the Abbot, but if the
abbot has not been ordained a priest, or if the monastic community is a convent,
a hieromonk will perform the service. The abbot or hieromonk who performs a
tonsure must be of at least the rank he is tonsuring into. In other words, only
a hieromonk who has been tonsured into the Great Schema may himself tonsure a
Schemamonk. A bishop, however, may tonsure into any rank, regardless of his own.
Novice (Slavonic: Poslushnik), lit. "one under obedience"—Those wishing to join
a monastery begin their lives as novices. After coming to the monastery and
living as a guest for not less than three days, the abbot or abbess may bless
the candidate to become a novice. There is no formal ceremony for the clothing
of a novice, he or she simply receives permission to wear the clothing of a
novice. In the Eastern monastic tradition, novices may or may not dress in the
black inner cassock (Greek: Anterion, Eisorasson; Slavonic: Podriasnik) and wear
the soft monastic hat (Greek: Skoufos, Slavonic: Skufia), depending on the
tradition of the local community, and in accordance to the abbot’s directives.
The inner-cassock and the skoufos are the first part of the Orthodox monastic
"habit. In some communities, the novice also wears the leather belt. He is also
given a prayer rope and instructed in the use of the Jesus Prayer. If a novice
chooses to leave during the period of the novitiate, no penalty is incurred. He
may also be asked to leave at any time if his behaviour does not conform to the
monastic life, or if the superior discerns that he is not called to monasticism.
When the abbot or abbess deems the novice ready, he is asked if he wishes to
join the monastery. Some, out of humility, will choose to remain novices all
their lives. Every stage of the monastic life must be entered into voluntarily.
Rassaphore, (Slavonic: Ryassophore), lit. "Robe-bearer"—If the novice continues
on to become a monk, he is clothed in the first degree of monasticism at a
formal service known as the Tonsure. Although there are no formal vows made at
this point, the candidate is normally required to affirm his commitment to
persevere in the monastic life. The abbot will then perform the tonsure, cutting
a small amount of hair from four spots on the head, forming a cross. He is then
given the outer cassock (Greek: Rasson, Exorasson, or Mandorrason; Slavonic:
Riassa)—an outer robe with wide sleeves, something like the cowl used in the
West, but without a hood—from which the name of Rassaphore is derived. He is
also given a brimless hat with a veil, known as a klobuk, and a leather belt is
fastened around his waist. His habit is usually black, signifying that he is now
dead to the world, and he receives a new name. Although the Rassaphore does not
make formal vows, he is still morally obligated to continue in the monastic
estate for the rest of his life. Some will remain Rassaphores permanently
without going on to the higher degrees.
Stavrophore, (Slavonic: Krestonosets), lit. "Cross-bearer"—The next level for
Eastern monastics takes place some years after the first tonsure when the abbot
feels the monk has reached an appropriate level of discipline, dedication, and
humility. This degree is also known as the Little Schema, and is considered to
be a "betrothal" to the Great Schema. At this stage, the monk makes formal vows
of stability, chastity, obedience and poverty. Then he is tonsured and clothed
in the habit, which in addition to that worn by the Rassaphore, includes the
paramandyas (Slavonic: paraman), a piece of square cloth worn on the back,
embroidered with the instruments of the Passion, and connected by ties to a
wooden cross worn over the heart. The paramandyas represents the yoke of Christ.
Because of this addition he is now called Stavrophore, or Cross-bearer. He is
also given a wooden hand cross (or "profession cross"), which he should keep in
his icon corner, and a beeswax candle, symbolic of monastic vigilance the
sacrificing of himself for God. He will be buried holding the cross, and the
candle will be burned at his funeral. In the Slavic practice, the Stavrophore
also wears the monastic mantle. The rasson (outer robe) worn by the Stavrophore
is more ample than that worn by the Rassaphore. The abbot increases the
Stavrophore monk’s prayer rule, allows a more strict personal ascetic practice,
and gives the monk more responsibility.
Great Schema (Greek: Megaloschemos, Slavonic: Skhimnik)—Monks whose abbot feels
they have reached a high level of spiritual excellence reach the final stage,
called the Great Schema. The tonsure of a Schemamonk follows the same format as
the Stavrophore, and he makes the same vows and is tonsured in the same manner.
But in addition to all the garments worn by the Stavrophore, he is given the
Analavos (Slavonic: Analav) which is the article of monastic vesture emblematic
of the Great Schema. For this reason, the analavos itself is sometimes called
the "Great Schema" (see picture above). The analavos comes down in the front and
the back, somewhat like the scapular in Western monasticism, although the two
garments are probably not related. It is often intricately embroidered with the
instruments of the Passion and the Trisagion (the angelic hymn). The Greek form
does not have a hood, the Slavic form has a hood and lappets on the shoulders,
so that the garment forms a large cross covering the monk's shoulders, chest,
and back. Another piece added is the Polystavrion or "Many Crosses", which
consists of a cord with a number of small crosses plaited into it. The
polystavrion forms a yoke around the monk and serves to hold the analavos in
place, and reminds the monastic that he is bound to Christ and that his arms are
no longer fit for worldly activities, but that he must labor only for the
Kingdom of Heaven. Among the Greeks, the mantle is added at this stage. The
paramandyas of the Megaloschemos is larger than that of the Stavrophore, and if
he wears the klobuk, it is of a distinctive thimble shape, called a koukoulion,
the veil of which is usually embroidered with crosses. In some monastic
traditions the Great Schema is only given to monks and nuns on their death bed,
while in others they may be elevated after as little as 25 years of service.
Eastern Orthodox monks are addressed as "Father" even if they are not priests;
but when conversing among themselves, monks will often address one another as
"Brother." Novices are always referred to as "Brother." Among the Greeks, old
monks are often called Gheronda, or "Elder", out of respect for their
dedication. In the Slavic tradition, the title of Elder (Slavonic: Starets) is
normally reserved for those who are of an advanced spiritual life, and who serve
a guides to others.
For the Orthodox, Mother is the correct term for nuns who have been tonsured
Stavrophore or higher. Novices and Rassophores are addressed as "Sister". Nuns
live identical ascetic lives to their male counterparts and are therefore also
called monachai (the feminine plural of monachos), and their community is
likewise called a monastery.
Many (but not all) Orthodox seminaries are attached to monasteries, combining
academic preparation for ordination with participation in the community's life
of prayer, and hopefully benefiting from the example and wise counsel of the
monks. Bishops are required by the sacred canons of the Orthodox Church to be
chosen from among the monastic clergy. It should be noted that the requirement
is specifically that they be monastics, not simply celibate (see clerical
celibacy). Monks who have been ordained to the priesthood are called hieromonks
(priest-monks); monks who have been ordained to the diaconate are called
hierodeacons (deacon-monks). A Schemamonk who is a priest is called a
Hieroschemamonk. Most monks are not ordained; a community will normally only
present as many candidates for ordination to the bishop as the liturgical needs
of the community require.
Monasticism in Western Christianity
A Roman Catholic monk
Roman Catholic monks in the Middle Ages
The religious vows taken in the West were first developed by St. Benedict of
Nursia who wrote the very first monastic rule. These vows were three in number:
obedience, conversion of life, and stability. Among later Western religious
orders, these developed into the solemn vows of obedience, poverty, and
chastity.
To become a monk, one had to first become an oblate or a novice. To become an
oblate, one had to be given to the monastery by one's father. Then, if one was
old enough, one could take their first vows and become a novice. Then, after
several years, if the abbot (head of the monastery) allowed, one could become a
monk.
The monks in the Middle Ages lived in a monastery, similar to a modern boarding
school. Most monasteries were shaped like a cross so they would remember Jesus
Christ, who died on a cross. The monastery had three vows: obedience, chastity,
and poverty, which made up the evangelical counsels. Obedience meant that monks
were willing to obey the Catholic Church, as represented by the abbot (head of
the monastery), chastity meant that since they were willing to dedicate their
lives to God, they sacrificed the love between men and women and would not
marry; poverty meant they lived their lives of sharing, and shared all their
possessions within the community and for the poor and would not hold back for
themselves.
Monks grew their own food and shared their work in the monastery. Some of the
more qualified monks were set to more challenging tasks, while others did
mundane work according to their abilities. The monks spent on average about
seven hours a day on work, except for Sunday, which was the day of rest.
Monks wore a plain brown or black cape and a cross on a chain around their neck;
underneath, they wore a hair shirt to remind themselves of the suffering Christ
had undergone for them. A man became a monk when he felt a call to God and when
he wanted to dedicate his life in God's service for the poor and gain knowledge
of God. There could be other reasons individuals felt called into the monastery,
such as wanting to be educated, as the monasteries were some of the few places
in the world where one was taught to read and write.
Munich's city symbol celebrates its founding by Benedictine monks—and the origin
of its nameThe monks called each other "brother" to symbolize their new
brotherhood within their spiritual family. The monasteries usually had a strict
timetable that they were required to adhere to. They grew their food for
themselves and ate it in complete silence. The monks were not allowed to talk to
each other anywhere, except in very special places. The monks even had a
hospital for the sick.
Anglican monks
A small but hugely influential aspect of Anglicanism is its religious orders of
monks. Shortly after the beginning of the revival of the Catholic Movement in
the Church of England, there was felt to be a need for a restoration of the
contemplative life. In the 1840s, Anglican priest John Henry Newman established
a community of men at Littlemore near Oxford. From then on, there have been
(re-)established many communities of monks, friars and other religious
communities for men in the Anglican Communion. There are Anglican Benedictines,
Franciscans, Cistercians, and in the Episcopal Church in the USA, Dominicans),
as well as home grown orders such as the Society of Saint John the Evangelist,
among many more in almost every Province of the Anglican Communion.
Anglican religious life at one time boasted hundreds of orders and communities,
and thousands of religious. An important aspect of Anglican religious life is
that most communities of both men and women lived their lives consecrated to God
under the vows of poverty, chastity and obedience (or in Benedictine
communities, Stability, Conversion of Life, and Obedience) by practicing a mixed
life of reciting the full eight services of the Breviary in choir, along with a
daily Eucharist, plus service to the poor. The mixed life, combing aspects of
the contemplative orders and the active orders remains to this day a hallmark of
Anglican religious life.
Anglican monks proceed through their religious life first by responding to an
inner call to the particular life. Then after counseling with his parish priest,
the seeker makes a visit to a monastery and tests his vocation. Usually he must
spend some time with the community as an aspirant, then he becomes a postulant,
then novice, then come first profession, and usually life vows.
Some communities are contemplative, some active, but a distinguishing feature of
the monastic life among Anglicans is that most practice the so-called "mixed
life." They keep the full round of liturgical and private worship, but also
usually have an active ministry of some sort in their immediate community. This
activity could be anything from parish work to working with the homeless,
retreats or any number of good causes.
Since the 1960s, there has been a sharp falling off in the numbers of religious
in many parts of the Anglican Communion. Many once large and international
communities have been reduced to a single convent or monastery comprised of
elderly men or women. In the last few decades of the 20th century, novices have
for most communities been few and far between. Some orders and communities have
already become extinct.
There are however, still several thousand Anglican monks working today in
approximately 200 communities around the world.
The most surprising growth has been in the Melanesian countries of the Solomon
Islands, Vanuatu and Papua New Guinea. The Melanesian Brotherhood, founded at
Tabalia, Guadalcanal, in 1925 by Ini Kopuria, is now the largest Anglican
Community in the world with over 450 brothers in the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu,
Papua New Guinea, the Philippines and the United Kingdom. The Sisters of the
Church, started by Mother Emily Ayckbown in England in 1870, has more sisters in
the Solomons than all their other communities. The Community of the Sisters of
Melanesia, started in 1980 by Sister Nesta Tiboe, is a growing community of
women throughout the Solomon Islands. The Society of Saint Francis, founded as a
union of various Franciscan orders in the 1920s, has experienced great growth in
the Solomon Islands. Other communities of religious have been started by
Anglicans in Papua New Guinea and in Vanuatu. Most Melanesian Anglican religious
are in their early to mid 20s, making the average age 40 to 50 years younger
than their brothers and sisters in other countries. This growth is especially
surprising because celibacy was not traditionally regarded as a virtue in
Melanesia.
Another important development in Anglican monasticism are religious communities
that allow both single and married people interested in the monastic lifestyle
to become first order monks and nuns. An example of this is the Cistercian Order
of the Holy Cross [1], an Order in full Anglican Communion with a traditional
period of postulancy and noviceship for applicants in the Roman, Anglican or
Orthodox faith traditions.
Buddhist monks
Main article at Bhikkhu
People of the Pali canon
Pali English
Community of Buddhist Disciples
Monastic Sangha
Bhikkhu, Bhikkuṇī
Sikkhamānā
Samaṇera, Samaṇerī
Monk, Nun
Nun trainee
Novice (m., f.)
Laity
Upāsaka, Upāsikā
Gahattha, Gahapati
Agārika, Agāriya
Lay devotee (m., f.)
Householder
Layperson
Related Religions
Samaṇa
Ājīvaka
Brāhmaṇa
Nigaṇṭha
Wanderer
Ascetic
Brahmin
Jain ascetic
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The abbot of a Buddhist monastery instructing novices, Uttaradit,
Thailand.Although the European term "monk" is often applied to Buddhism, the
situation of Buddhist asceticism is different.
There is a trial period prior to ordination, to see if a candidate wishes to
become a Buddhist monk. If he does, he remains in the monastery; otherwise, he
is free to leave.
In Theravada Buddhism, bhikkhu is the term for monk. Their disciplinary code is
called the patimokkha, which is part of the larger Vinaya. They live lives of
mendicancy, and go on a morning almsround (Pali: pindapata) every day. The local
people give food for the monks to eat, though the monks are not permitted to
positively ask for anything. The monks live in wats (monasteries), and have an
important function in traditional Asian society. Young boys can be ordained as
samaneras. Both bhikkhus and samaneras eat only in the morning, and are not
supposed to lead a luxurious life. Their rules forbid the use of money, although
this rule is nowadays not kept by all monks. The monks are part of the Sangha,
the third of the Triple Gem of Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha.
Chinese monk lighting incense in Beijing temple.In Mahayana Buddhism, the term 'Sangha'
is in principle restricted to those who have achieved certain levels of
understanding. They are therefore called 'community of the excellent ones'
(Tibetan: mchog kyi tshogs); however, these in turn need not be monks (i.e.,
hold such vows).
Several Mahayana orders accept female practitioners as monks, instead of using
the normal title of "nun", and they are considered equal to male ascetics in all
respects.
In Vajrayana Buddhism, monkhood is part of the system of 'vows of individual
liberation'; these vows are taken in order to develop one's own personal ethical
discipline. The monks and nuns form the (ordinary) sangha. As for the Vajrayana
vows of individual liberation, there are four steps: A lay person may take the 5
vows called 'approaching virtue' (in Tibetan 'genyen' <dge snyan>). The next
step is to enter the monastic way of life (Tib. rabjung) which includes wearing
monk's or nun's robes. After that, one can become a 'novice' (Pali samanera, Tib.
getshül); the last and final step is to take all vows of the 'fully ordained
monk' (gelong). This term 'gelong' (Tib. <dge long>, in the female form gelongma)
is the translation of Skt. bikshu (for women bikshuni) which is the equivalent
of the Pali term bhikkhuni; bhikkhu is the word used in Theravada Buddhism (Sri
Lanka, Burma, Thailand).
Chinese Buddhist monks have been traditionally linked with the practice of the
Chinese martial arts or Kung fu, and monks are frequently important characters
in martial arts films. This association is focused around the Shaolin Monastery.
The Buddhist monk Bodhidharma, traditionally credited as the founder of Zen
Buddhism in China, is also claimed to have introduced Kung fu to the country.
This latter claim has however been a source of much controversy (see Bodhidharma,
the martial arts, and the disputed India connection).
In Thailand, it is common for boys to spend some time living as a monk in a
monastery. Most stay for only a few years and then leave, but a number continue
on in the ascetic life for the rest of their lives.
Vaishnava monks
Hare Krishna
Similar in appearance to Buddhist monks, monks from the International Society
for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), or Hare Krishnas as they are popularly
known, are the best known Vaishnava monks outside India. They are a common sight
in many places around the world. Their appearance—simple saffron dhoti, shaved
head with sikha, Tulasi neckbeads and tilaka markings—and social customs (sadhana)
date back many thousands of years to the Vedic era with its varnasrama society.
This social scheme includes both monastic and lay stages meant for various
persons in various stages of life as per their characteristics (guna) and work
(karma).
ISKCON started as a predominantly monastic group but nowadays the majority of
members live as lay persons. Many of them, however, spent some time as monks.
New persons joining ISKCON as full-time members (living in its centers) first
undergo a three-month Bhakta training, which includes learning the basics of
brahmacari (monastic) life. After that they can decide if they prefer to
continue as monks or as married Grihasthas.
Brahmacari older than fifty years can become sannyasi. Sannyasa, a life of full
dedication to spiritual pursuits, is the highest stage of life in the varnasrama
society. It is permanent and one cannot give it up. A Sannyasi is given the
title Swami. Older grihastha with grown-up children are traditionally expected
to accept vanaprastha (celibate retired) life.
The role of monastic orders in Indian and now also Western society has to some
extent been adapted over the years in accordance with ever-changing social
structures.
Madhvaacharya (Madhvacharya), the Dwaita philosopher, established ashta matha
(Eight Monasteries). He appointed a monk (called swamiji or swamigalu in local
parlance) for each matha or monastery who has the right to worship Lord Krishna
by rotation. Each matha's swamiji gets a chance to worship after fourteen years.
This ritual is called Paryaya.
GMNK Game m,n,k
An m,n,k-game is an abstract board game in which two players take turns in
placing a stone of their color on an m×n board, the winner being the player who
first gets k stones of their own color in a row, horizontally, vertically, or
diagonally. Thus, tic-tac-toe is the 3,3,3-game and free-style gomoku is the
19,19,5-game.
Apart from gomoku, m,n,k-games are mainly of mathematical interest. One seeks to
find the game-theoretic value, which is the result of the game with perfect
play. This is known as solving the game.
The second player cannot have a winning strategy
A standard strategy stealing argument from combinatorial game theory shows that
in no m,n,k-game can there be a strategy that assures that the second player
will win (a second-player winning strategy). This is because an extra stone
given to either player in any position can only improve that player's chances.
The strategy stealing argument assumes that the second player has a winning
strategy and demonstrates a winning strategy for the first player. The first
player makes an arbitrary move to begin with. After that, he or she pretends
that he or she is the second player and adopts the second player's winning
strategy. He or she can do this as long as the strategy doesn't call for placing
a stone on the 'arbitrary' square that is already occupied. If this happens,
though, he or she can again play an arbitrary move and continue as before with
the second player's winning strategy. Since an extra stone can not hurt him or
her, this is a winning strategy for the first player. The contradiction implies
that the original assumption is false, and the second player can not have a
winning strategy.
This argument tells us nothing about whether a particular game is a draw or a
win for the first player. Also, it does not actually give a strategy for the
first player.
General results
The following statements refer to the first player, assuming that both players
use an optimal strategy.
k ≥ 9 is a draw: when k = 9 and the board is infinite, the second player can
draw via a "pairing strategy". A draw on an infinite board means that the game
will go on forever with perfect play. A pairing strategy involves dividing all
the squares of the board into pairs in such a way that by always playing on the
pair of the first player's square, the second player is ensured that the first
player cannot get k in a line. A pairing strategy on an infinite board can be
applied to any finite board as well - if the strategy calls for making a move
outside the board, then the second player makes an arbitrary move inside the
board.
k ≥ 8 is a draw on an infinite board. It is not clear if this strategy applies
to any finite board sizes. It is not known if the second player can force a draw
when k is 6 or 7 on an infinite board.
k = 1 and k = 2 are trivial wins, except for (1,1,2) and (2,1,2)
k = 3 is a draw for (3,3,3) (see Tic-tac-toe) and a win otherwise if m > 3 or n
> 3. If m ≤ 3 and n ≤ 3, the game is a draw.
Specific results
(m,4,4) is a win for m = 30 (Lustenberger, 1967) and a draw for m = 8. In 2003,
it was shown to be a win for m = 9 (Sobotovych, see external link W.J. Ma).
(5,5,4) is a draw.
(6,5,4) is a win.
(6,6,5) is a draw.
Computer search by L. Victor Allis has shown that (15,15,5) is a win, even with
one of the restrictive rules of Gomoku.
RuneScape has often been one of
the top massive online role playing games. It is a unique game. But, with a
unique game, comes unique players. Players get bored, and then try to develop
cheats....autos or bots that will help them achieve success in their beloved
games of Runescape 2.
RuneScape is a virtual world which
is divided into two part: Members Areas and Non-Members areas. People who pay to
play (p2p), receive access to the special areas. They also have access to the
free areas. The members' places are much larger, offer "better" items for the
gameplay of rs2, and much, much more. The character that you create when you
first start playing runescape, moves around the game on foot; either by running,
or walking. Players are challenged to their utmost skills by fighting new
monsters, completing difficult quests, and manipulating marketing. As Runescape
2 is an RPG (Role playing game), there is no set path a person must take to play
rs. They can choose what to do, and when, whether it be training their
money-making skills, or fighting another player. Players usually interact with
each other by chatting through public chat, or private chat.Internet Junction For Gamers, Runescape Market and More IJFG.COM IJFG.com
was a runescape 2 based site. They have now, however, taken another look....
Of
course the king of all game cheating websites is
trick the trik (otherwise known as RPG Cheats Site), where you can find
cheat forums, mmorpg topsite, arcade games and any mmo game related topics.
The master of massive multiplayer
online role-playing games (MMORPG) cheats can be found at Trik.com
Trik.com; this site is one of the best today. The forum section,
Trik.com forum, originally came from IJFG.com (Internet Junction For
Gamers) , which was one of the best websites that discussed various gamers'
issues. The full name was Internet Junction For Gamers, Runescape Market and
More. This site had Jokes, Pranks, RuneScape and other cool games. RuneScape is
set in a medieval fantasy world, similar to "Guild Wars" or "EverQuest," where
players control character representations of themselves. As with most MMORPG,
there is no overall objective or end to the game. Players explore, form
alliances, perform optional tasks, and complete quests for rewards and to build
characters' skills.
Trik.com continues IJFG.com's
success, but Trik.com has more to offer. Trik Topsite can be found at
Trik Topsite; the TopSite is a great addition if you want to find the best
MMO RPG site(s) or raise your site in the rankings. Trik.com also has a
viciously competitive Arcade. If you want to be the #1 Arcade on Trik, then come
prove yourself at Trik.com arcade:
Trik arcade. Trik.com – Trik.com/topsite – Trik.com/forum/arcade.php
With the rising popularity of
commercial MMORPG games came the desire from ardent players of these games to
run their own servers beside the ones run by the game's creator. Since the
original server software is not usually available, the behavior of the server
has to be re-engineered. This can be done by analyzing the data stream with the
original server, or by disassembling and analyzing the client which is
available.
Ultima Online was one of the first
large MMORPGs. Due to its openness in implementation, server emulators arose
very quickly, even during the beta stage of development. The destination to
which the client connects was changeable by simply editing a text file. In beta
stage the client-server data stream was not encrypted yet. The term server
emulator became known through Ultima Online server reimplementation such as UOX,
which was the pioneer. Many forks and reimplementations followed UOX, because
its source code was released under the GNU General Public License relatively
early. RunUO is today the most widely used UO-server emulator. After RuneScape
implemented anti-cheating measures, many gamers left and started their own
private servers. The best place to discuss the private server is at
Trik- The Master of Private Server.
Another useful site is
Rune Web ruwb.com . This site is about more serious RuneScape gold trading,
account exchange, gold for real life cash and many services. It includes tips on
how to avoid getting lured/scammed while using the marketplace. For programming,
visual basics, java, C/C++, scar and all other languages such as PHP, HTML, ASP,
Delphi. There are also sections for graphics talents, plus many cool videos and
fun stuff.
A defining moment in internet
gaming history was when a group of gamers called (hygo 7) decided to start an
ultimate game forum, which they named
hygo.com. It has the best financial backing, the friendliest game community,
and the highest quality of information. Currently Hygo.com has entered a new
phase...Hygo.com is offering the best private server game. With thousands of
members, Hygo.com is your next place to visit, as they have an amazing game with
a community and economy.
Hygo.com - The Online Adventure Game. is definitely one of the top sites you want to join right
now!
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